Man’s True Nature Essay

In Hsun Tzu’s, â€Å"Man’s Nature is Evil† the author explains why the human characteristics are wicked. The author uses basic illustrations of people’s jealousy and envy to prove that human nature is truly evil. Tzu’s essay proves through many examples that man’s nature is evil, and that everything that is considered good comes from people that go against their â€Å"evil nature† to make the concept of morality. Hsun Tzu’s â€Å"Man’s Nature is Evil† is a great analysis of human nature to suppose that in fact, man’s nature is truly evil. The writer uses metaphors and history of human kind to support his reasoning. This paper will analyze Tzu’s essay and propose with supporting facts that man’s nature is justifiably evil. Hsun Tzu enlightens the reader with evidence to establish that man’s nature is evil. Tzu explains how human kind is full of jealousy and rooted with sin. Hsun says man, â€Å"†¦is born with a fondness for profit.† He also says man is born with feelings of jealousy and hate. If man indulges in these, it will lead up to violence and crime. This is a prime example that man is born evil because signs of jealously and envy are stained in the most raw form of human kind. A prime example of this is how man is competitive. He struggles to do better than his fellow human. People try to get better jobs, nicer houses, bigger cars, and the scariest thing now is that they perform surgery to enhance their physical appeal. People of all ages are always jealous of someone else, regardless if they have money, good looks, or fame. These feelings are the root to evil and sin. Tzu continues his influence by speaking on how one must be taught the â€Å"rules† society sets forth so that they don’t become a criminal. If man were truly a good creature, would he even need rules to follow? Or would we need some form of society to place these rules? It is obvious by Tzu’s terms that if we have to ask these questions then man’s roots are questionable as well. He also implies that the only reason we have these â€Å"set of laws† is because a person was thinking outside of their nature. Tzu refers to these â€Å"conscious thinkers† as the Sages of society. Tzu continues by saying that good only comes from conscious activity, therefore asserting man’s nature as sinful and evil. Another way to think of this is using children as an example of human nature. Kids are taught how to behave and act by their parents. If nobody taught these children how to act, they would just act off of their instinct and nature. When kids are with their parents at grocery stores, they just grab what they want without knowing the consequences of stealing. Parents teach morals and instill ethics in the adolescent youth. Children don’t know any better about stealing and sharing until they are taught that. This proves that humans in their juvenile state (children) are selfish and only think for themselves. The only way that they â€Å"learn† how to be good is to be taught. This is the point Tzu was trying to reach. Mothers and fathers discipline their children and tell them to be â€Å"good†. Kids act off of impulse and natural feelings. If their natural feelings aren’t to be good, they must be the latter. This clearly suggests that man’s evil nature. In â€Å"Man’s Nature is Evil†, Hsun Tzu effectively criticizes his detractor, Mencius, who believes man’s nature is good. Arguing Tzu’s point, Mencius states â€Å"man is capable of learning because his nature is good.† Tzu criticizes Mencius for not knowing the difference between basic nature and conscious activity. Basic nature is how someone would react without having been taught how to approach a situation. Hsun’s main argument against Mencius is that he doesn’t understand the concept of basic nature and consciousness. Conscious activity is applying what you have been taught. This is the theme of Tzu’s belief that man is taught to be good and originally evil in nature. Continuing this theme, Tzu explains conscious activity by explaining the work of a carpenter is not his nature; it is in fact conscious activity. This is an effective analogy because it suggests that a carpenter must be taught his trade, it is not his basic nature. Man doesn’t know specific rules without being taught them. The Sages who think consciously are the basis of our rules. A basketball player wouldn’t know how to dribble a ball unless he was taught how. A man who knows nothing about the game, wouldn’t even know were to start from. Tzu applies this to humans’ nature in general. Suggesting that man is not good in nature, and that good is the product of conscious activity is the authors’ main point. Tzu states that, â€Å"Every man that desires to do good does so precisely because his nature is evil.† The authors’ evidence for this is the idea how a poor man strives to be rich or an ugly man longs to be beautiful. People want things that they don’t already have. This is incorporated in our society. This is the idea of popularity and stature. If subject A has something subject B doesn’t, it is in subject B’s nature to strive to acquire it. Tzu states this thought of striving to be good as an evil nature. Man isn’t born with â€Å"ritual principles†. Tzu explains life without â€Å"ritual principles† as â€Å"†¦chaotic and full of irresponsibility†. Therefore it proves Tzu’s theory of not being good in nature and we acquire it from conscious activity. The author compares warped wood to the core roots of mans evil and twisted nature. As with a warped board, it must be straightened by a straightening board and steamed and forced into shape. The writer uses this as a metaphor to compare an evil man to the warped board, and the sage kings were the straightening mechanism to conform the individual. This goes back to the idea that man is bad or evil in nature. Man is taught or forced to conform to societies rules. If these rules were not in place, man would go back to his origin of evilness. Tzu ends his argument with an appropriate analogy: â€Å"A person with two feet is theoretically capable of walking to every corner of the earth, although in fact no one has ever found it possible to do so.† Walking the earth suggests that we are all capable of acting good due to our conscious activity, but not every man will attempt to change their basic instincts. This is due to man acting only on nature. Tzu implies that if one was to think consciously, they would be acting righteously and not evil. This is the only basic problem in his arguments. But it is easily countered by looking at the foundation of humans in general. If mans nature was good, wouldn’t there be more sages compared to the rest of the population? Throughout Tzu’s essay â€Å"Man’s Nature is Evil†, the writer gives details why  the human is rooted to evil. The author, Tzu, employs fundamental instances of people’s jealousy and envy to confirm that human nature is beyond doubt evil. Tzu’s paper proves through many examples that man’s nature is evil, and that everything that is measured good comes from the small group of conscious thinkers that go against their â€Å"evil nature† to make the idea of morality. Hsun Tzu’s, â€Å"Man’s Nature is Evil†, is a excellent investigation of human nature to prove that in fact, man’s nature is justly evil. The author uses metaphors and facts of the human class to hold up his way of thinking. So ultimately man’s nature is indeed evil.

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Environment Influences Essay Example for Free

Environment Influences Essay There is a belief among experts that everyone is born as a blank slate. We do not know anything about the world and those around us and we spend our childhood years learning, emulating, adjusting, and finally creating our individual personas based on these experiences. Now the main question being asked by the other experts these days is â€Å"Does the environment influence people?† The environment has an effect on a person in more ways than one can fare imagine. My argument is that the environment does influence people, children most specifically, by building character and freethinking. We can also view the influence of the environment on people in terms of scientific and sociological aspects. 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The environment outside the house is where the child begins to develop his character and sense of ones self. Outside the home, a child tries to become part of and to identify himself with a peer group. A child does this by allowing himself to be influenced by the people around him and following their examples and making it suit their own individual needs. . His environment also influences the culture of a child. Culture, is something that a person must experience first hand in order to learn from it. Therefore, since you have to live in order to experience culture, one can consider culture to be a transmission from the environment of the child or adult. Just like influence, culture is passed on from person to person. Even though parents try to provide the â€Å"right† environment for their children, the simple truth is that there is no â€Å"right† anything. The environment will influence the child no matter how you try to control it because a parent can only do so much to influence the child who spends most of his time outside the home. Of course, aside from children, the environment that they interact in can also influence adults. The social environment of a person dictates the way he shall conduct himself in public. There are a large majority of studies that support the argument that the environment does greatly influence the personality of people because the way his environ ment views his physical appearance will determine how he will act out in public. It is this belief that has most experts, such as doctors and mental health professionals debating various theories regarding the mental development of people. Certain theorists are of the opinion that the environment a person grows up in has a direct effect on his mental health and mental development. So there must be a concentration on the environmental development of a person’s mind. So what do these developments and studies about how the environment influences people tell us? It tells us a number of major things. First of all, the environment is not just located in one localized place. It also cannot be in a controlled space for long. The environment of children proves to be a very delicate and intricate part of growing up. The environment of a person directly influences the mental development, and personality of the child or adult. Secondly, the social environment of an individual influences his behavior as these so called â€Å"norms† show us how to act and how to have other people treat us. It is this social influence that trains a person to conform, comply, and follow the dictated norms of the environment he exists in. Yes, the environment does have a direct influence on a person. The direct influence of the environment on people cannot be measured in terms of quantity. This topic is so vast and highly debatable that it will take more than a three page essay with which to defend my stand. Therefore, I would like to conclude my essay on the following note. Each man is placed in an environment where he will best grow as a person. Be it in youth of maturity, that person will have an equal amount of exposure to good and bad environments. The choice of which environment he will allow to influence him solely depends on greatly influenced he is by the environment and his peers. The influence of the environment ends when the person makes the conscious decision to follow a certain path for himself be it in along the path of his environment or in an opposite direction. At the end of all this, the environment gave the individual a unique personality and coping ability that is designed to best help him navigate the perils of his environment. An environment will only influence a person as far as he is willing to be influenced. Everything else pertaining to influencing the individual mentally, socially, and emotionally are all conscious decisions made by the person him or herself based upon the influences of his immediate and past environments Games and Violence Computer games have seriously caught the attention of Mass Media and nowadays every channel considers its duty to remind people how much damage these games cause to children and adults. The increasing amount of games with violent scenes sock the society and makes it very aware of them.It is already common knowledge that violent games cause violence in people. This fact is not even doubted by the majority of people. Every other person says that the reason lies in games being too close to reality. The opinion that games make violent actions normal for the player and therefore make the player pitiless can be often heard. In this case the game is the cause of violence and the act of violence by itself is a consequence. And can real-life violence exist in the reality of a game? Is the transfer of the definition of â€Å"violence† with all its peculiarities from one world to another justified only according to the external similarity of these two worlds? Games originally are entertainment. Contemporary games are very realistic and for this reason they are a source of great experience for the player and develop the imagination. Games are entertainment and even more then that. In addition, the statistics of the New York University lead by Green and Bavelier claim that the player preferring active games get an improvement of some types of brain activity, related to processing of visual information. In particular, game players cope with problems of simultaneously tracking several moving objects at the average level of 30% better then people who do not play active computer video games. The â€Å"gaming† violent experience may not be the cause of violent behavior in reality. None of the playi ng experience will become the priority in making important decisions concerning problems in real life. A game is an abstraction. A player gets abstract tasks and acts according to abstract rules.Games are also the possibility to be however a person wants to be and to rest from the outside world for some time. But what if a person gets so much excited with the game scenes that he becomes violent in reality? Then, it proves that the games cause people to become violent. Let us stop for a moment right at this point. Those who do not participate in this type of activity usually make the conclusion of presence of violence in the game-world. Nobody will ever hear this kind of statement from those who play, from those who know the rules of the game and understand that it is just a virtual world. A psychologically healthy person will never confuse or connect these two different worlds. A game is a virtual world with visual images very similar to human. These images represent by themselves nothing but simple playing obstacles. A game may potentially give the opportunity to â€Å"destroy the obstacles† that may not be destroyed according to the rules but it is more about personal choice whether to do it or not. This leads us to the conclusion that violence is not a consequence but the cause. People who are originally prone to violence may get irritated by games and perform violence in the â€Å"real world†. But in this case violence in games is a simple justification of the violent nature of the player. Is a College Degree Necessary to Become Successful The value of higher education cannot be underestimated considering the contemporary realities of the competitive marketplace. A higher education degree literally serves as the first impression of a jobseeker applying for employment. Namely a college degree is a person’s pass to the business world and so work-related opportunities are enormous. Truth is, college degrees are never the same if we take into account the reputation of higher establishment as well as the prestige of a particular field of studies. The today’s holders of college degrees have unprecedented opportunities of job search since the employment market has largely expanded throughout on-line domain offering freelance and part-time vacancies. Though, in both real and virtual employment, it is always a person’s CV (resume) that is initially considered by employer and in 95% of cases the inclusion of college degree is a must to get a well-paid job. The abovementioned proves that college degree always pays off, and therefore this essay aims to discuss the present-day realities in due respect. Overall, college education provides students with appropriate knowledge and skills to be used later in real life circumstances and working environment. At that career choices do not matter since the contemporary market is vast and enormous. In particular, college education enables students to gain preliminary information about many essential aspects required to cope with real-life challenges. At that students expand their knowledge and acquire practical skills by grasping abstract theories and concepts. A college curriculum teaches students how to clearly express personal standpoints and opinions both in conversation and writing. In most cases students acquire global thinking as well as that relevant to the solution of specific problems. Furthermore, students learn how to work in teams and solve tasks in cooperation; this enables to establish team spirit and ability to make personal contribution to overall mutual achievement. Various case studies based on real-life experiences teach students to better presume and therefore adapt to further complexities. To this end, it goes without saying that a college degree always means more employment opportunities since it is the identification of one’s academic qualification. In comparison, high school education is not enough to meet the ongoing challenges of today’s market place, and therefore the overwhelming majority of jobs require a college degree. In addition to the expanded job opportunities, a bachelor’s degree means higher earning prospects compare to a person with a high school diploma. Therefore, our earnings initially depend on the quality of diploma we receive, and to a great extent college marks (grades) may be compared to the monthly salary rate in the future In actual fact, there is a problem concerning studying at a college. College education does not depend only on student’s talent, successfulness or willingness to study. The cost of education is therefore high issue on the agenda which indicates the affordability of college education. Many students cannot afford college education due to various reasons and/or particular life conditions. Hence, most students rely on loans and/or other means of financial aid to afford their college courses. Apart from financial reasons, of course, the initial factor is high self-motivation to study at college. Whenever there is no family tradition or lack of overall interest, or nobody to recommend college education, a young person may easily opt for other (alternative) choices. In addition to this, college education a ssumes preliminary determination meaning that a person should choose a single subject area (law; medicine; architecture) to master in college and therefore build his/her career. However, the initial indecisiveness does not mean a student should know everything in advance. A college education is therefore designated to provide a student with proper and substantial knowledge and skills; nevertheless, the major direction should be chosen well in advance. One other initial problem is that young people mistakenly assume that a college education is rather difficult. To this end, it is worthy to note that studying at college involves student support and tutoring. Most western colleges are equipped with the necessary technological devices and easily accessible academic database to assist students while performing their assignments. Certainly, there are alternatives (e.g. community colleges) to four-year colleges that provide sufficient level of education, though only bachelor’s and master’s degrees are genuinely valued on the competitive marketplace, and therefore most students try to complete their education at four-year colleges (College Board, 2008) . Considering the aforementioned, the most important issue on the contemporary agenda would be not the importance of a college degree as such, but its real quality. This is actually the root answer to the problem of why some people are becoming more successful, while others not. Specifically, the quality of a college degree indicates that college graduates obtained certain amount of knowledge and managed to process and, most importantly, absorb it. A core subject, such as law or medicine whatever, requires proper understanding, a contribution of solid amount of time and additional resources to make it a future profession that would bring profits. This is to ay a college degree as such is not the panacea in a working world. A proper college diploma therefore assumes that a college graduate is able to prove it with a certain extent of academic knowledge. Regarding practical skills, they are further acquired within internship, practice and actually working environment. Many people, howeve r, fail to prove their knowledge acquired during college years with practical skills and therefore are made to change profession/occupation. Historically education has been regarded as a key to prosperity, and college system of education starting from the 17th century has proved this approach to be right. Also, throughout historical evolution, conventionally males have gained better education compared to females. However, times have changed and starting from the second half of the 20th century the situation has been equalizing. The today’s working environment is highly diverse providing vast opportunities to the qualified specialists and therefore knowledge has been regarded as a decisive factor. Religious, sex, colour, socio-cultural diversities are more and more eliminated since companies need qualified college graduates that can prove their knowledge in practical conditions. This is the way most companies win a competitive advantage for qualified employees are regarded as an invaluable asset by most corporations. Such fair treatment based on professional qualities rather than individual features is reasonable an d justified. Based on qualifications, there is hardly any difference between pay rates; nonetheless, in most industries men still earn more than women. This indicates that discriminatory issues are more and more tolerated and the quality of education approved by a college degree is a real value at the contemporary marketplace (Leonhardt, 2008). One more aspect to consider is the vast employment opportunities accessible to college graduates. The point is that the modern world has become flexible and changing as never before. Internet and cutting-edge technologies indicate the permanent progress and thus success is now associated with s permanent change. Successful people permanently adjust to changing circumstances and diverse environments to reap most benefits. Thereafter, the work-related relationships between employees and employers have also altered dramatically. There are millions of freelance job opportunities enabling people to work form the comfort of their home and rationally maintain work-life balance. To keep workforce loyal most companies need to establish flexible working practices, including part-time jobs, paternity leaves, childcare leaves, swapping shits etc. Therefore, HR departments lessen work stress and enable their employees to lead reasonable (normal) lives. In addition to this, employees are granted with numerous bonuses and incentives that often serve as sound motivators to keep loyal to the corporate policies (Walton, 1985). Due discussion might be continued and further expanded – though the core theme remains the same – only proper extent of knowledge and skills approved by a college degree enable a person to change jobs and seek better option for career-building and professional advancement. A college degree is a precious asset we use during lifetime to properly build up our professional growth and development. Therefore, whenever there is a chance, a person should use four college years to acquire this asset and ensure his/her further career prospects. As a rule, college graduates make social strata regarded as elite and many of them are becoming very successful to donate money to charities and therefore reduce poverty. Hence, knowledge brings profit and profit is used for prosperity. In the 21st century this particular formula should be applied in all walks of life to make the world a better place. 1. Argumentative Topic (Alcohol danger for under age drinking) Alcohol addiction is largely featured by general tolerance for alcohol with periodically increasing amounts to achieve the same degree of satisfaction, having a persistent desire or the inability to lower the amount of consumed dozes, and continuing consuming great amounts of alcohol despite realizing that the habit causes physical, psychological and socio-economic problems. Such dependence is much intensified during the teenage period (13-19 years) when young organism acquires negative effects that eventually destroys the rest of a person’s life. Alcohol addiction is mostly featured by psychological and physical dependence on daily basis. Hence, physiological, behavioral and cognitive perceptions are mainly centered on alcohol rather other life values. Alcohol desire is deemed a central descriptive characteristic of the dependence syndrome (Mental Health Matters, 2005). In addition, alcohol dependence is featured by irresistible desire or compulsion to frequent alcohol takings, and consequently difficulty to control alcohol-taking behavior including post-consumption consequences; disregard of outer difficulties caused by enormous alcohol consumption. As is proved by numerous under-age examples of alcohol consumption and addiction, the dependence syndrome is mostly revealed in either alcohol taking or a desire to take alcohol (Mental Health Matters, 2005). The need for alcohol is present when a person craves alcohol and cannot limit actual amounts or whenever a drinker enlarges alcohol consumption to feel high. Then, this state is called alcoholism which is particular to the majority of drinkers who practiced alcohol consumption during the underage stage. Differences between men and women at their workplace Introduction: A very important issue concerning diversity is the difference between men and women at workplace. As the matter of international experience of hiring people it is very important to point out that there have been a great number of cases connected with discrimination. We consider this to be a vital problem even nowadays, in spite of the change of the reasons for discrimination. If in the past it was a major problem for women to find a job and to prove that they can provide results equal to men, in the present time the situation has quiet changed. In addition to that women start getting benefits and are sometimes the only possible employees for a given workplace. Women establish a very strong emotional contact with the client; at the same time they are treated as being less professional than their male colleagues. Male workers according to the opinion of the employers are more rational. They complement and substitute the women’s emotional â€Å"contamination† by the rational aspect of the matter they are working with. Due to this employers sometimes prefer to eliminate either the â€Å"emotional†, or the â€Å"rational† factor and put â€Å"labels† on the employees taking their gender as an evaluating criterion. But nowadays everything has changed and men and women perform each other’s work excellently. We have observed in practice this difference, when a job, considered to be a â€Å"male job† was done perfectly by a woman but did not get the well-earned recognition in the company. One of the psychological reasons for that, as we assume, is the incapability of the authorities of the company to deal with a stereotype and change their ways according to the changing world around them. So therefore, it is the lack of flexibility. Women nevertheless are treated with a higher loyalty in any decent company. And sometimes their work results may be viewed as just needing some correction in comparison to the same work presented by men that would be considered wrong. But all these are exaggerated examples. The cultural component of this issue should be taken in count, too. For example is we take a black male and a white woman we may meet with a â€Å"special† treatment to the first one, due to the company’s respect and desire to show that they do not have any racial prejudices. We, believe, that the difference between men and women still exists and women and the quality of their work nowadays displace men. Nevertheless, we have examined another opinion that concerns women. Rose Mary Wentling suggested another point of view on the differences between men and women at workplace. The author asserts that women are still experiencing difficulties in their workplaces. The main arguments that are brought are the next: women are not given the standard of work performance when they apply for a â€Å"male† job, therefore do not get the detailed and clear picture of their involvement; women are not included in all the kinds of communication throughout a company; women lack the opportunity to †grow, develop, and contribute to company profitability†. According to this point of view women are not given the opportunity to introduce their ideas and innovations to the company’s functioning. But the main issue to work on is that the expectations of the employers concerning women are different than the ones concerning men. Conclusion: Women are ready to travel and move and relocate, and to make â€Å"the same commitment to the company as men aspiring to leadership positions† due to the reassessment of the woman’s role in the society. Analyzing this different point of view we came to a conclusion that both men and women face gender difficulties at any kind of job. So therefore we consider providing them with equal conditional vital for the benefit of the company itself in the first place. A modern company should not pay attention to the gender attribute. Both men and women need to have career advancement opportunities and counseling. Men and women are potential employees of any company, no matter what position we are talking about. From with combination of two points of view we get an understanding that both men and women have examples of being not treated properly at their workplace in spite of having the required skills for the place. And it is not possible to say that either men or women are facing greater difficulties in their professional lives. So it can be said that the difference did not disappear, but it is not a single-sided issue. Dorm life vs. Home life Almost every young person entering the period of college education faces the necessity to leave home and to live in the on-campus dormitory. The on-campus dormitories have been â€Å"survived† by many people and some of them have absolutely opposing opinions. The change from home to dorm life can be called one of the most important event in the life of any young person first of all because it is the first extreme life change and also because the consequences are still unknown. Home life and dorm life represent two different ways of living in different conditions. Nevertheless they have their similarities and differences that can be seen only after a deep analysis of the issue. The choice between home life and domestic life can lead to complete transformation of the life of a young man. On-campus life inevitably affects the life of the person and along with home life have their pros and cons. On-campus dormitories may be a pleasant experience for one person and a terrible test for another one. For some people dorm living is a necessity. There are several objective facts concerning dorm living. First of all any individual living at the dorm will have to face the necessity sometimes to live together with up to three students. Only those individuals who have an exclusive position within the university may count on having a room without roommates. The quality of the beds sometimes requires repair and the closet very often cannot fit in all the belonging of the roommates. The dorm does not provide the individuals with an actual kitchen and has small space for refrigerating food. The dorm offers public baths which are not comfortable under any condition. The next fact is about one of the most important ones – the dorm cuts individual space to its possible minimum as the person can hardly ever be alone. Another aspect of the dorm living is that the individual can make a lot of friends and find a lot of people who have the same interests. At the same time dorm living sometimes leads to early sexual intercourses and a false â€Å"feeling of complete independence†. Home living is another option sometimes chosen by young people. First of all home living proved the student with the possibility to get healthy food, freshly cooked on a normal kitchen. The fact that the meal can be actually cooked is a plus for the saving in the individual’s budget. Home living requires having personal chores and complete responsibility for the place the person lives in. As for personal hygiene at home, it is private and the individual can spend as much time on it as he desires. Home living guarantees the fact that people come to visit the person most often under the condition of a beforehand notice. The individual may do whatever he feels like doing and not get involved in activities he has no actually desire for. In other words, home living requires a lot of responsibilities but at the same time offers personal space and the opportunity to relax, study or work any time of the day. Home and dorm living have a lot of contrasts such as: food, privacy, hygiene, leisure, etc. and similarities such as certain expenses required for living. If to compare home living to dorm living a few fact are worth of mentioning. In home living the individual has at least one full room which is completely under his â€Å"jurisdiction†. Home living offers all the required personal space and the individual’s movement within the house are not limited as they are in the dormitory. The dormitory does not have a comfortable bed and also the individual cannot equip everything in the most suitable manner for him. A home living individual has all the required space for his belonging and an equipped kitchen to cook food. Nevertheless, in the dorm the food expenses can be spited among the roommates. The dorm’s public bath has obvious disadvantages as compared to a private home bath. Also home, as compared to dorm living provides more individual space as the person at home still has time to be alone and in the dorm it is practically impossible. If the person does not want to party all the time, home living is the best option. In order to conclude it is important to say that the basic differences between the dorm living and home living are the individual interests of the person and his aims in life. If dorm living is a necessity for one individual but he has a high motivated for education – dorm living will not change anything. And at the same time if a individual without motivation is a subject of home living there is no guarantee that all these personal space and freedom will lead to a better future. Therefore the main factor here is the personality of the dweller.

The Integration Of Core Concepts And Frameworks In Health Studies Nursing Essay

The Integration Of Core Concepts And Frameworks In Health Studies Nursing Essay Introduction This assignment attempts to explore the integration of core concepts and frameworks in health studies. The purpose of the assignment is to analyse the writers current professional practice, focusing on the outcomes of reflection, models of health, focus for learning, methods of enquiry and occupational mode of practice. Where reflective accounts are used to demonstrate a relationship to current practice, the author will make these entries in the first person (Webb, 1992, Hamill, 1999). The author is a senior staff nurse within an acute and emergency care facility in the North West of England. To ensure anonymity and confidentiality no reference is made to either patients or staff (NMC, 2004). During the last three decades, many professional groups have taken up reflective practice. Bulman Schutz (2004) argue that this enhances learning and promotes best practice within nursing. It is seen as an appropriate form of learning and a desirable quality amongst nursing staff (NMC, 2002). There have been many attempts to define reflective practice, however, Atkins Murphy (1993) argue that the whole concept is poorly defined. Reflection and reflective practice is a process allowing the practitioner to explore, understand and develop meaning, highlighting contradictions between theory and practice (Johns, 1995). Moon (1999) defines reflection as a set of abilities and skills, to indicate a critical stance, an orientation to problem solving or state of mind. Reflection is a window through which an event or situation is broken down and evaluated upon in an attempt to understand what has happened, to improve practice and aid learning and development (Reed, 1993, cited in Burns Bulman, 2000). Kolb (1984) states that reflection is central in theories of experiential learning and argues that within nursing, this form of learning is the most dominant. Platzer, Blake Ashford (2000) state that there are many benefits to learning through reflection, however, they are critical of individual reflective accounts and acknowledge the barriers to this form of learning. They explain how group reflection is more potent when attempting to understand complex professional issues and believe that through sharing, supporting and giving feedback in these sessions will facilitate learning with greater effectiveness. Wilkinson Wilkinson (1996) share this view, but highlight the importance of respecting and maintaining confidentiality. Schon (1983) describes reflection in two ways: reflection in and reflection on action. The differences in these types of reflections are reflecting whilst the situation unfolds and reflecting retrospectively on an event (Greenwood, 1993, Fitzgerald, 1994). Atkins Murphy (1994) improve upon this and suggest that for reflection to make a significant difference to practice, the practitioner must follow this up with a commitment to action, as a result. Interestingly, Greenwood (1993) also states that reflection before action is an important preparatory element to reflective learning as it allows the practitioner to formulate plans ahead of situations arising. There are other writers on reflective practice and conflicting arguments exist about when best to reflect. (Wilkinson, 1999). There are some critics of reflective practice, these highlight issues including the surveillance and self-regulation of reflective practice (Taylor 2003). Bulman Schutz (2004) suggest that when bringing personal feelings and emotions into the public domain that this can act as a barrier to reflection. They also acknowledge other limitations to the reflective process, including a lack of effective tools for assessment, political and financial pressures and the knowledge and skills required by facilitators. Taylor (2003) proposes that due to the confessional nature of reflection, debate can be raised over the legitimacy and honesty of the process. Schutz (2007) states that insufficient research has taken place to assess the benefits of reflection in nursing, leaving some debate about its appropriateness. Taylor (2003) argues however, that reflective practice is considered a positive approach to learning and is an important educational tool. There are many models to guide a practitioner through the reflective cycle. Reflection was first explored by Dewey (1933), Boud et al (1985) Cooper (1975) Powell (1989), Jarvis (1992), Atkins and Murphy (1994), Reid (1993) and others. More recently, models used to guide reflective practice, include Gibbs (1998) Johns (1995), Bortons (1970), Smyth (1989) and others. Health is a broad concept and can embody a variety of meanings, of which there is no particular right or wrong answer. There is no ideal meaning of health, making it a highly contested topic (Aggleton, 1993). The word health derives from the old English word to heal (hael) meaning whole (Naidoo and Wills, 2000). This statement suggests that health relates to the individual and concerns their holistic well-being. However, the literature suggests that opinions vary and that some perspectives disagree. Health is defined in many ways, generally divided into two types of understanding; official and lay perspectives. The main difference between the two, is that one is the view held by professionals and the other represents the views of lay people (non professionals). Official definitions of health have two common meanings in every day use; positive and negative (Cribb 1998, Aggleton 1993). The positive view represents a state of well being and the negative view surrounds absence of disease. The World Health Organisation (WHO) (1946) encapsulated a holistic view of health, Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Whilst setting high targets to be achieved, this definition has been criticised for being too idealistic and impossible to attain (Aggleton, 1993). In view of the criticism, the WHO changed its definition: health is the extent to which an individual or group is able to realise aspirations, to satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is therefore seen as a resource for everyday life not the object of living. Health is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities (WHO, 1986). This suggests that more recent definitions see health not as a state, but as a process towards the achievement of each individuals potential (Seedhouse, 1986). Negative definitions focus on the absence of disease or illness (Aggleton 1993, Naidoo Wills 2000). One definition of health suggests that people are healthy so long as they show no signs of bodily abnormality (disease). This definition fails to take into account how the person feels about themselves. The individual may feel ill in situations where health professionals are unable to find any underlying pathology (Aggleton 1993). Alternatively, an individual may have a disease and feel perfectly well. The main point being made here is that subjective perceptions cannot be overruled or invalidated by scientific medicine (Naidoo Wills 2000). The negative meaning of health is utilised by the medical model, which is explored later in the text. Whilst in the workplace, it is apparent to me (who is also a Registered Nurse) that both positive and negative meanings of health are used. Doctors focus on health from the negative viewpoint e.g. a doctor may review a patient and whilst not being able to find evidence of an acute illness, decides that the patient is fit to be discharged. Alternatively, I may focus on the positive view. In this context, a holistic approach to the patients health and social well-being is being explored, and therefore a comprehensive assessment of these needs are being made prior to discharge. As previously mentioned, lay beliefs are the views of those who are not professionally involved in health issues (Aggleton 1999). Whilst this is so, they must not be totally discounted as they can be as important as official definitions. They often influence the behaviour and understanding of an individual, and ultimately, the way they respond to health issues. An example of this can be demonstrated when reflection takes place after an incident e.g. a gentleman was admitted to the assessment area complaining of chest pain. After investigation, he was diagnosed with a myocardial infarction. Immediately after diagnosis, he remained on bed-rest for twenty-four hours, then after this period, the patient stated (when asked how he felt), that he felt well and had infact never felt better. At this point the patient proceeded in an attempt to get out of bed and mobilise locally. Thus, it was his belief (a positive view) that because he felt well (he had no symptoms of feeling unwell) then th is was a signal for him to carry on, in his normal manner, which was not the case. If the patient had been told he needed to rest, then it is likely that his behaviour would have changed. Beliefs about health can also vary from place to place (Aggleton 1993). Having nursed in various locations throughout the United Kingdom, my experience of this is first hand and from this experience, I share the views of Aggleton. There seem clear distinctions between health needs and health interpretations between different social class groups. e.g. in deprived areas, beliefs of health are that you just get by, however, in more affluent areas, health is not seen as merely being free from ill-health, but looks at other dimensions too, like keeping fit, eating healthily and being active. According to Jones (1994), health is subject to widely variable individual, social and cultural expectations, produced by the interplay of individual perceptions and social influence; suggesting that individuals create and re-create meanings of health and illness. This is done by our lived experiences. This view is supported by researchers, who have identified social class differences in concepts of health (Blaxter 1990, Calnan 1987). Their findings concluded that middle class respondents had a more positive view of health and found this to be linked to perceptions such as enjoying life and being fit and active. Through the same research, working class groups viewed health as functional and avoiding ill health. One explanation for these findings is that compared to working class people, middle class groups have greater control over their lives, due to income thresholds and job security, generating higher standards of living. According to Naidoo Wills (2000), this leads to people in different social classes holding different beliefs about autonomy and fatalism. These views are confirmed by my experiences in the workplace. The majority of patients I see are from working class backgrounds. This information is obtained from the patient during admission, when asked about their occupational status. It must be acknowledged however, that someones occupation doesnt necessarily denote their social group. These patients do have a tendency to view health as functional and this further supports the explanation offered by Naidoo Wills (2000). The United Kingdom is undoubtedly classed as a multicultural society, therefore it could be argued that a range of cultural views about health co-exist (Naidoo Wills, 2000). Alternative practitioners offer therapies such as acupuncture, reflexology and massage, which are based on cultural views of health and disease and run in conjunction with therapies offered by the National Health Service, which focuses on scientific medicine. The use of complementary alternative medicine (CAM) is largely unregulated but due to recent government pressures, a regulatory body to govern the use of some of these practices is to be set up (Hawkes, 2008). It is also evident that differences in chronological age and lifestyle also play a key part in influencing our views about health. For many young people, health may be seen as the ability to take part in sporting activities or being at the peak of their fitness (Blaxter 1990, Aggleton 1993). Alternatively, health for the older person is more likely to relate to the ability to cope and to be able to undertake a more restricted range of actions (Williams 1983, Aggleton 1993). It is clear from this discussion, that there are a variety of forms that can be taken from a concept. It is felt therefore that it would be useful to use an analytical framework which brings together defining features of concepts of health and demonstrates their relationship to each other. One such framework is by Alan Beattie (1987, 1993). Beattie (1987, 1993) suggests that concepts of health can be characterised by a focus on health as the property of individuals through to the property of people collectively, on a continuum. Further concepts can be seen as open to authoritative definition (or scientific principles), or alternatively as socially negotiable within the context of people concerned. This lead Beattie to set out two interlocking axis the horizontal and vertical axis. The horizontal axis represents individual people to families, groups and whole communities. The vertical axis represents a stance from expert led (authoritative usually represented by expert knowledge) to client led (negotiated using peoples own interpretations of their health and viewing them as experts in their own right) interventions. From this, the four quadrants of Beatties concepts were born. Biopathological models of health are related directly to the individual, them being the focus for treatment and free from illness or disease. Health is proclaimed in an authoritative manner through investigation and diagnosis. This model relates closely to the medical model of health. Biographical models of health focus on the individual subjective experience of health. Health is seen as part of everybodys life story and is therefore seen as being linked to our individual biographies. Health is not established through science but the personal opinion of the individual in the context of their lived experience. Environmental models view health as a property of populations as opposed to individuals. The emphasis is on the use of statistical data to describe epidemiology, in order to determine the health of the population. The communitarian concept states that health is the property of the social contexts of peoples lives in their communities. Health is seen to be influenced by how people respond to their material and cultural circumstances of their lives and not being shaped by authoritative monitoring of patterns of health. Beattie (1987, 1993) suggests that these models are not mutually exclusive. They can co-exist in differing circumstances, however, the emphasis may be more or less dominant. Having explored these models, it becomes evident that within my practice the Biopathological model is the most dominant between the members of the health care team e.g. a patient is admitted to the assessment unit with complaints of chest pain. The medical team (or the technician as Beattie would refer) would see the individual as the focus for treatment and will carry out expert, scientific led investigations. The diagnosis would then be proclaimed in an authoritative manner. This model has been criticised for being too narrow and it can be argued that medicine is not as effective as it is often claimed (Naidoo Wills 2000). The twentieth century has seen a reduction in mortality and increased longevity in developed countries and it is often assumed that medical advances have been responsible for this. McKeown Lowe (1974) would argue that this is not necessarily the case. In their historical analysis they concluded that social advances in general living conditions had been responsi ble for most of the reduction in morbidity, whereas the contribution of medicine had played a much smaller role. However, within the professions and institutes of medicine, mechanistic approaches to analysis are still dominant (Beattie et al 1993). In practice, the biopathological model of health is usually adopted when dealing with the nominated patient group, but it must be acknowledged that sometimes, due to the nature of nursing (even in an acute area), I may utilise other models within Beatties framework, particularly the biographical model of health. Here, the focus is still individual, but the care is negotiated as opposed to prescribed. Interestingly, the NMC (2004) code of professional conduct also advocates that patients be treated individually, with respect and with their best interests in mind. An example can be given to the reader of when this overlap occurs. A patient is admitted to hospital, following an acute exacerbation of chronic airways disease. The individual is seen by the doctor and in an authoritative manner prescribed a course of treatment, which included smoking cessation. The patient did not respond well to this demand. He believed that because he had been smoking for most of his adult life, that this did not contribute to his current health breakdown. Utilising previous experience in this area, I talked through the issues of smoking cessation and gave a rationale for the proposed treatment. I listened to the patient, with their concerns and anxieties and found that previous attempts at stopping smoking had been unsuccessful. The patient highlighted that no help had been offered previously from the health care team and that he had no financial compensation for his treatment. After a discussion about the support and available services, the patient accepted my offer to a free and confidential stop smoking service and agreed to a referral being sent. According to Beattie (1987, 1993) the focus for learning concerns the type of knowledge a health care practitioner needs in order to practice within their setting. Within the biopathological model of health, the focus for learning is that of essential knowledge applied by the competent worker (the technician). This is consistent with my focus for learning and is utilised frequently in every day practice. It is the most dominant over other focuses suggested by Beattie (1987, 1993) within other models of health. An example of when I might use this form of knowledge could be when managing a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) clinic. I assess the patients risk of having a DVT, then, by following the trusts protocol decide the patients management plan. To ensure the effective running of the clinic at a competent level requires me to have essential knowledge about the diagnosis and treatment of DVT including a thorough understanding of the anatomy and physiology involved, the treatments, radiologi cal investigations, complications and side effects to treatment. Carper (1978), suggests that there are four fundamental patterns or types of knowing in nursing. These are known as his taxonomys of knowing and include, the empirics, aesthetics, personal knowledge and ethical domains. The empirics element of his taxonomy relates to the science of nursing and having the ability to describe, explain and predict. The aesthetics dimension relates to the art of nursing. Personal knowledge relates to the knowledge that an individual has from their past experiences in nursing and the ethical component of Carpers taxonomy relates directly to the decision making, the rights and wrongs, holding values and applicating. A method of enquiry, concerns the formal ways in which knowledge is generated and used by practitioners (Beattie 1987, 1993), often referred to as research and is vital in informing practice (Rolfe 1996). Research has two main paradigms for which there are different terms. Here, they shall be referred to as positivism and interpretivism. Positivist research is concerned with facts based on objective information, which is tested and systemised e.g. a randomised controlled trial. Interpretivist research deals with meanings based on subjective information e.g. a patient satisfaction survey (Parahoo 1997). Previously, I have identified that the predominant method of enquiry in the workplace is the positivistic approach, directly relating to the biopathological model of health. In nursing, the use of evidence-based practice is prevalent and Naidoo Wills (2000) agree is firmly established. This is consistent with the use of randomised controlled trials to establish what forms of treatment are most effective for most people. Sackett, Rosenburg, Muir Gray, Haynes Richardson (1996), describe evidence based practice to be a conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. This suggests that evidence based practice is crucial to the effective delivery of care and to the role and status of the nursing profession (Hardey Mulhall 1994, Roper, Logan Tierney 1996). An example of positivistic research, used within my practice, would be the use of diabetes mellitus, insulin glucose infusion in acute myocardial infarctio n (digami regime) (see appendix 1, for summary of research findings). Following these findings, the digami regime has been implemented throughout the NHS Trust in which I am employed, and is now standard procedure for staff to use on the appropriate patients. The data to support the use of the digami regime evolved from randomised controlled trials, which Hardey Mulhall (1994), maintains provide high reliability. Further more, the randomised controlled trials have been described within evidence-based practice as the gold standard (Naidoo Wills, 2000). On the negative side, Parahoo (1997) argues that positivistic research studies human beings as objects and does not provide knowledge of the patients views of the treatment. Conclusion It is undoubtedly clear that health is a complex and multi-faceted area for discussion. There are many meanings and definitions to health with no simple answers. It has become clear that lay and professional views should be regarded equally due to their equal stature. The practitioner has always regarded these as so, but the essay has highlighted this important area and has increased my awareness of this for future clinical practice. The practitioner will continue to view health positively and holistically and will endeavour to promote this practice amongst other members of the multi-disciplinary team. The practitioner has learned that using an analytical framework is a useful tool when mapping concepts of health in particularly Beatties framework. The framework was easy to follow and relates well to practice. The focus for learning was found to be predominantly around applying essential knowledge. The method of enquiry that informs practice was dominantly positivism which linked closely with Beatties biopathological model. Not surprisingly, this model prevails as the most dominant in my clinical practice. From this module, I feel that I have developed both personally and professionally. The knowledge gained through the undertaking of further study has helped me bridge the theory practice gap and has made me more aware of issues surrounding this complex area of health. Appendix 1 This study was initiated to test the hypothesis that rapid improvement of metabolic control in diabetes patients with acute myocardial infarction by means of insulin glucose infusion decreases the high initial mortality rate and that continued good metabolic control during the early post infarction period improved the subsequent prognosis of myocardial infarction (Malmberg et al 1995, Malmberg et al 1994, Malmberg 1997). Conclusions from this study, support the immediate use of insulin glucose infusion followed by multi-dose insulin in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction (Malmberg et al 1995, Malmberg et al 1994, Malmberg 1997) References Aggleton. P. (1993) Health Routledge. London. Atkins. S., Murphy. K. (1993) Reflection: a review of the literature. Journal of advanced nursing. 18(8) 1188-1192. Atkins. S., Murphy. K. (1994) Reflective practice. Nursing Standard, 8(39) 49-56. Beattie. A., Gott. M., Jones. L., Sidell. M. 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(1992) Reflective practice and nursing. Nurse education today. 12. 174 181. Johns. C. (1995) Framing learning through reflection with Carpers fundamental ways of knowing in nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 22. 226-234. Johns. C. (1995) Achieving effective work as a professional activity. In Schober. J. E., Hinchcliff. S. M. (eds). Towards advanced practice: key concepts for healthcare. Arnold. London Jones. L. J. (1994) The social context of health and health work. Macmillan press. Basingstoke. Kolb. D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. Malmberg. K. A., Efendic. S., Ryden. L. E. (1994) Feasibility of Insulin-Glucose Infusion in Diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction Diabetes Care 17(9) 1007-1014 Malmberg. K. A., Efendic. S., Ryden. L. E., Herlitz. J., Nicol. P., Waldenstrom A., Wedel. H., Welin. L. (1995) Randomised Trial of Insulin-Glucose Infusion followed by Subcutaneous Insulin treatment in Diabetic patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction (DIGAMI Study) : Effects on Mortality at 1 year Journal of American College of Cardiology 26(1) 57-65 Malmberg. K. A. (1997) Prospective randomised study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus British Medical Journal 314, 1512-5 McKeown. T., Lowe. C. R. (1974) An introduction to modern medicine Blackwell scientific publications. Oxford. Moon. J. (1999) Reflection in learning and development. Theory and practice. Routledge Falmer. Oxon. Naidoo. J., Wills. J. (2000) Health promotion foundations for practice (2nd ed). Balliere Tindall. London. New York. NMC. (2002) Requirements for pre-registration nursing programmes. NMC publications. London. NMC (2004) The code of professional conduct: standards for conduct, performance and ethics. NMC publications. London. 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What I Would Place In A Time Capsule Essay -- essays research papers

What I Would Place In A Time Capsule As the turn of the millennium approaches, the human race will continue to develop new technology and new ways of thinking. It is always enjoyable to take a visual journey back in time, to view what was considered advanced and what thoughts of future times represented. A time capsule stored with precious documents and possessions from a past era can serve as a visual and material presentation of what past times were like, and put in prospective the accomplishments that have changed human lifestyles for better or worse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If I were invited to participate in the planning of a time-capsule, I would include items that depicted the present society's mood and pastimes. One item that suits this category would be music. Music is one of the most influential forms of art, and has brought delight, sadness, love, and despair to individuals worldwide. I would include a compilation of the most popular and the most controversial music of the present era, and some background information on the songs and artists. Song lyrics, like poetry, can go beyond the written words of a book or a story, and give an in depth prospective on people and their lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Guiding the new information and technology of today, computers serve as the most useful tool for teaching and productivity across the globe. With the aid of computers, new and better systems are manufactured and put to work constantly. The amount of d...

Market Failure and Government Intervention :: Papers

Market Failure and Government Intervention This essay will examine the concept of market failure and the measures that governments take remedy the failure of the market. The concept of perfect market allocation of resources was in W. Baumol's (1988,631), view largly theroretical. Baumol believed that economic models relied upon the concept of the invisible hand first discussed by Adam Smith. In these models, the perfectly competetive economy was able to allocate resources efficiently, without the need for market intervention by outside agents, including governments. However, there were significant weaknesses in these models particuarly in the area of ensuring equity of acess, social objectives and in the provision of public goods. Ensuring equity of acess, meeting social objectives and providing public goods.were considered the main reasons why the public sector provided goods. Why governments intervened in the market was due mainly to charactoristics of the market place. If the market place was to function efficiently, several conditions needed to exsist, including, * Freedom of choice * Certainty of demand * Miniminal externalities * Excludability In addition to these prerequisites, the perfect market required perfect consumer and supplier information, no rent seeking behaviour and no moral hazard existed. If these conditions were not met, market mechanisms would fail to produce the efficient allocation of resources. P. Groenewegen (1990,2) argued that governments intervened in the market place with the, ... Public sector... being engaged in the providing sevices (and in some cases goods) whose scope and variety are determined not by the direct wishes of the consumers, but by the the decisions of government bodies. This view implies that governments intervene for many reasons, including the redistributional and stablisation functions. While market failure is one reason for intervention, other considerations, including questions of equity and social justice determined the nature and the extent of government intervention. This point was expanded upon by Groenewegen (1990,2) who argued that the extent of market intervention in the supply, distribution and redistibution of goods and services are not dictated by purly political and ideological considerations, other considerations may play a role including the failure of the market in certain instances to ensure efficient, equiable allocation of resources. Another reason why governments intervened in the market place was to ensure the provision of public goods. Public goods are generally comodities that are socially desiralbe but cannot be financed through the private sector. Market Failure and Government Intervention :: Papers Market Failure and Government Intervention This essay will examine the concept of market failure and the measures that governments take remedy the failure of the market. The concept of perfect market allocation of resources was in W. Baumol's (1988,631), view largly theroretical. Baumol believed that economic models relied upon the concept of the invisible hand first discussed by Adam Smith. In these models, the perfectly competetive economy was able to allocate resources efficiently, without the need for market intervention by outside agents, including governments. However, there were significant weaknesses in these models particuarly in the area of ensuring equity of acess, social objectives and in the provision of public goods. Ensuring equity of acess, meeting social objectives and providing public goods.were considered the main reasons why the public sector provided goods. Why governments intervened in the market was due mainly to charactoristics of the market place. If the market place was to function efficiently, several conditions needed to exsist, including, * Freedom of choice * Certainty of demand * Miniminal externalities * Excludability In addition to these prerequisites, the perfect market required perfect consumer and supplier information, no rent seeking behaviour and no moral hazard existed. If these conditions were not met, market mechanisms would fail to produce the efficient allocation of resources. P. Groenewegen (1990,2) argued that governments intervened in the market place with the, ... Public sector... being engaged in the providing sevices (and in some cases goods) whose scope and variety are determined not by the direct wishes of the consumers, but by the the decisions of government bodies. This view implies that governments intervene for many reasons, including the redistributional and stablisation functions. While market failure is one reason for intervention, other considerations, including questions of equity and social justice determined the nature and the extent of government intervention. This point was expanded upon by Groenewegen (1990,2) who argued that the extent of market intervention in the supply, distribution and redistibution of goods and services are not dictated by purly political and ideological considerations, other considerations may play a role including the failure of the market in certain instances to ensure efficient, equiable allocation of resources. Another reason why governments intervened in the market place was to ensure the provision of public goods. Public goods are generally comodities that are socially desiralbe but cannot be financed through the private sector.

Jews :: essays research papers

Jews "The enemy trapped the Jews in the city by building a wall around it. Foodstuffs could not be brought in: starvation and crowded conditions gave rise to disease, and epidemics spread among the populace. But surprisingly the Jews held on. Then the enemy massed troops outside the wall and brought out the latest in weaponry. They attacked, using fire to spread destruction. The Jews repelled the enemy a number of times. So savage was the resistance that the campaign to destroy the Jewish population took much longer and cost more troops than anticipated. Street by street the fighting raged with hand-to-hand combat between the heavily armed troops and the haggard defenders. Some Jews tried to escape through the sewers, but they were flushed out by fire. At the end the Jews had taken a heavy toll on their enemy but the city lay in smoking ruins. The remaining Jewish survivors were rounded up to be used as slave laborers or to be killed. What episode in Jewish history is depicted in this scenario? Most people would say this was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising against the Nazis in 1943. But in fact it was the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in the year 70 The destruction of the Second temple and the attack on the Warsaw Ghetto, although separated by nearly two thousand years have and eerie sameness. The Germans sealed off the Warsaw's Jewish population with and eight-foot brick concrete wall. The Romans built a high earthen barricade around Jerusalem to make certain the Jews could not escape. Germans shot, on the spot Jews discovered outside the Warsaw Ghetto. The Romans crucified the Jews they found, placing crosses atop the hill to terrorize those watching from inside the city: as many as 500 were crucified in 1 day. The Germans tried to starve the Polish Jews into submission reducing their rations at first to 800 calories a day and later cutting off all food to the ghetto. The Romans used the tactic of siege to bring starvation in Jerusalem. In both episodes the actual fighting was in some ways similar. "Since the ghetto was impenetrable in frontal attack, General Stroop's forces set fire to the buildings with incendiary bombs and flame throwers" Titus's Roman legions used flaming torches of wood to set fire to the Temple and other buildings in the final battle. "Through the roar of the flames as they [the Romans] swept relentlessly on could be heard the groans of the falling†¦ the entire city seemed to be on fire. The Nazis not only killed but plundered Jews if their possessions; the Romans

Biological Weapons and America’s Secret War Essay

Each and every day, everyone is exposed to germs. Despite our distaste for germs, nature has assured us that many, perhaps most of the germs we encounter are not harmful, but many are not just harmful, but deadly. Perhaps man spent most of his existence without any first hand knowledge about germs, but man almost certainly has recognized that unseen germs have undesirable effects. In ancient times, people thought that germs came from demons or the gods. In ancient history, Hypocrites acknowledged that this was not true. From ancient times to the Black Death of the fourteenth century and on to the arrival of Columbus to the New World, germs killed millions of people. During the Plague of the fourteenth century, known as the Black Death, fully one third of all Europeans are thought to have perished. Invisible at the time, germs such as bacteria were first seen when Anton Van Leeuwenhoek noticed them with the invention of the microscope. Even then, some germs are so small that they could not be seen until the electron microscope was invented in the 1930s. Although seen for the first time, no defense against them was readily available until Dr. Edward Jenner created the first vaccine in 1796. In the nineteenth century, medical professionals realized that taking precautions as simple as washing one’s hands could reduce the likelihood of being infected by germs. In 1928, Alexander Flemming discovered that penicillin kills bacteria, a discovery that might have helped the world a decade earlier when an estimated 20 million people world wide died from influenza. This staggering figure demonstrates just how deadly germs can be, and vividly drives home the dangers of germs and their potential for use in warfare. Recent events also demonstrate the cause for concern about the spread of germs and the possible dangers of widespread germ warfare. In 2003, fully two decades after the world first grew alarmed about the spread of the human immunovirus (HIV) and the dangers AIDS that result, a Chinese man living in China became ill with an unusual type of pneumonia labeled SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome). Although initially localized to China, SARS quickly spread throughout the world in just three months, another vivid illustration of the dangers of germ warfare. Those who might use germ weapons targeted at a particular enemy are not endangering their enemy. Germs do not recognize boundaries. This is one of the central concerns the authors express in their book. Germs are bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. Although the vast majority of germs are probably harmless, some can invade plants and animals and make them sick and many are deadly. However, not all are harmful and some can be beneficial. For example, some bacteria grow in our intestines and help us to incorporate nutrients in our bodies from the foods we eat. Such bacteria are not cause for concern and not the subject of the authors’ book. Rather, authors Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg and William Broad focus on biological warfare and the deadly germs used in and/or developed for biological warfare. This book is a revealing look at the biological weapons programs that have existed in the US and Russia in the past and might exist today. In Russia, for example, the program was â€Å"Known to the Soviets as ‘the Concern,’ Biopreparat [the laboratories and plants that supposedly manufactured vaccines and other civilian pharmaceutical products] was in fact a hub of Moscow’s germ effort, a vast network of secret cities, production plants, and centers that studied and perfected germs as weapons. † (p. 135) While nuclear energy and the potential to develop and use nuclear power for military purposes was the novel weapon of the 20th century, the comparable weapon of this century may be germ bombs and the threat of germ warfare. Germs are less costly to cultivate and develop than nuclear power, easier to develop and available to anyone with adequate expertise and laboratory facilities. Unlike the millions of dollars required to develop and design nuclear weapons, biological weapons are relatively inexpensive to develop and use. Developing an efficient delivery system to use with biological weapons may be more difficult than developing or cultivating deadly germs, but the tendency of people to move among themselves and the propensity of germs to quickly spread from one individual to another make germs and germ warfare a cause for concern. Of course, protective gear is required for their development so as to avoid contamination during research or use and to protect from accidents and wastes, but developing germ weapons is relatively easy and available. What are the effects of viral infection? Despite their minute size, germs are among the most deadly things in the kingdom of living things. The authors provide an example. In their scenario, the victims contracted the virus after eating in a restaurant. â€Å"The stomach cramps began later that day†¦ Two days later,(they) started getting ill†¦ by week’s end, thirteen of †¦ twenty-eight employees were sick. And dozens (more) called to complain that they had gotten violently ill†¦. † (p. 18) Germs are or can be the cause of great illness and biological destruction and can cause death in numerous painful and undesirable ways. The spectrum of effects that can be attributed to germs ranges from very beneficial to mildly beneficial to mildly harmful and all the way to deadly. Once germs invade a body, they consume nutrients and energy and produce toxic wastes that act as poisons leading to any number of health problems. The beneficial germs are not what concern the authors. The authors’ message is that germs can be deadly and that governments have and probably still are developing germs specifically for use as weapons in military situations, and while that is of concern, the authors point out that other concerns are just as worrisome or of more concern. What if biological weapons developed by the military were to fall into the hands of terrorists? Even though the means to deliver biological weapons is difficult, in a terrorist act or even in a military situation, even an inefficient means of delivery can be sufficiently effective to be frightening and cause the rapid spread of germs. The germs can be spread by human interaction and contact. In situations of terrorism, germs can be sprayed or merely distributed by means of tiny vials. Once the spread begins, the germs can be more difficult to eradicate than they were to deliver even if only distributed in a small area. The problem then becomes how to contain the germs and prevent their spread. General focus of the book Although the authors focus on the biological weapons program in the US, they also consider other elements of concern as regards biological weapons and biological warfare. They point out that research into the development and use of biological weapons has grown despite the deadly nature of the weapons and the reality that such weapons, like the gases used during World War I, are just as deadly and harmful to those who would use the weapons as to those who are the intended victims. It may be impossible to protect victim or victimizer from the effects of biological weapons. The authors are concerned that on numerous occasions, the U. S. has considered using biological weapons despite the dangers they pose. But the U. S. is not the only culprit. Other countries have biological weapons programs and some biological weapons have been used in the past. These weapons pose a threat for the future. During the Gulf War, for example, biological weapons developed by Iraq posed a threat and they might, in fact still pose a threat. While U. S. went in search of nuclear weapons and found none, the threat of biological weapons posed just as great a danger. The authors consider and compare chemical and biological weapons and outline the relative dangers of each. Author’s view and why author feels this is important The authors make clear that everyone is playing with germs for use in warfare. During World War I, the combatants used mustard gas to kill the enemy, but they learned that a temporary shift in the wind direction could result in deaths on both sides. While it is perhaps only a value judgment that germs are worse than nuclear weapons, nobody can deny that germs might be at least as bad. If the radiation pollution and effects of nuclear weapons can last for hundreds or thousands of years, how long could the effects of a living virus last and how are we to combat them: perhaps not as long as nuclear radiation and perhaps not forever; perhaps longer and even forever. Who can predict? What is to stop them from infecting all parties? Of course, conventional warfare is not the only reason for concern as regards biological weapons. Of particular concern are terrorists. The authors of this book review the problems associated with the creation and existence of biological weapons manufactured by countries around the world. They point out that the biological weapons prepared for use in war are just as deadly and just as much of concern for their value to terrorist for use in acts of terror. Unlike nuclear weapons, both chemical and biological weapons can be easy and inconspicuously transported from one location to another by anyone. Even if the countries that have germ weapons have no intention of using them, who can prevent them from falling into the hands of terrorists. Terrorists have a death wish of sorts. Perhaps they don’t want to die, but they are willing to die for their cause, and while no one can object to a person being willing to die for a cause, not all causes are for the benefit of humankind. In the hands of terrorists who don’t care about anyone or anything but their cause, biological weapons pose an equal danger to everyone. Germs do not recognize boundaries, race, nationality or cause. Terrorists can but biological weapons just as they buy other weapons or manufacture them on their own. The authors describe biological weapons as â€Å"the poor man’s hydrogen bomb. † Often, they are simple to make in a laboratory. Sociological consequences from author’s perspective Biological weapons are more than merely a military concern. They are a sociological concern and a concern to society in general. Perhaps the only reason biological weapons might not be of as great a concern as the concern surrounding nuclear weapons is that most terrorists might not have a proper means to spread contamination by biological microbes, but even with the limited use of a biological weapon, stopping the spread of germs is complicated. Even limited use of such weapons can cause widespread contamination, especially during the initial period before anyone becomes aware that a biological weapon has been used and action can be taken to stop the spread of the microbes. Once released, stopping the subsequent spread of the biological germs is both a medical and a sociological problem. Sociology involves how people interact with people, and the widespread use of biological weapons would dramatically alter and restrict human interactions. Typical human interactions from one day to the next, from one moment to the next dictate that germs will spread quickly and rapidly become a global concern as was demonstrated with the SARS outbreak in 2003. Weaknesses and strengths of the book Perhaps the book’s greatest weakness is adequately addressing what can be done to prevent the further development and spread of such weapons. How can we prevent similar situations in other countries? Even if we could persuade the U. S. and Russia to abandon research and development of biological weapons, what can be done to prevent the spread and use of such weapons throughout smaller countries of the developing world? The authors do not pose viable solutions for that problem and, sadly, there may be none. Signing treaties may alleviate fear, but treaties signed in public are broken in secret. No one realizes they have been broken until it is too late. That, perhaps, is among the greatest concerns connected with this issue. While the book is well written and adequately considers a number of important issues, the question as to how to prevent biological weapons from spreading is not adequately considered, perhaps because, in my view, openly signing treaties is no guarantee that anyone will adhere to what has been signed. That, therefore, is a concern, at least my concern. Yes, Americans could put pressure on U. S. politicians to stop research in and development of germ weapons and germ warfare, but that wouldn’t necessary stop such research among terrorists. How can we really prevent germ weapons from falling into the hands of rogue countries and terrorists? The book addresses the issue, but no viable solutions are presented. Another concern, perhaps a major one, is the manner in which the authors pose or form their conclusions. For example, they ask, â€Å"Is the threat of germ weapons real or exaggerated? Our answer is both. † This leaves the reader wondering what to conclude, or at the least leads the reader to wonder what message the authors are trying to relay. Fortunately, this book is not designed to be an alarmist book, but rather to point out the threat currently posed by biological weapons and what can be done to minimize their impact in the event of a biological attack. Author’s biases Of course, everyone has a bias and slant on everything. The authors slant their work on the dangers of germ weapons and ignore the benefits. Considering the true dangers, one might ask, â€Å"Do germ weapons present any benefits in the long run? † Certainly, no rational person could blame the authors for ignoring the assumed benefits of germ warfare. For example, is it possible that just the threat that these weapons exist might serve as a deterrent to war? From my perspect, that question, although it seems logical, is foolish to the point of being ridiculous. Any weapon that is so deadly and dangerous that it cannot be used is useless because it leaves no rational options. Fail to use it and be destroyed. Use it and be destroyed. Those seem to be the options and, as you can see, they do not constitute an option at all. The final outcome is destruction. The authors explain, â€Å"Once the rod-shaped bacteria entered a victim’s body, the invaders multiplied wildly over hours and days, damaging tissues and overwhelming rival bacteria. Their main weapons were toxins and sticky hairs†¦ The toxins caused the intestines to exude waves of watery fluid. † (p. 19) By the end of the outbreak, nearly 1,000 people had been infected, medical facilities and staff had been overwhelmed and infected individuals had moved around so as to spread infection. This is how viruses act on everyone, victim and victimizer alike. They create situations that overwhelm facilities, medical professionals and staff alike. On the other hand, if situations never come to the point where such issues need be considered, then the weapons and their creation were needless in the first place. So, the bottom line is not to develop such weapons at all. They pose many serious dangers and no real advantages. Personal experiences with Germs Like most people perhaps, my personal experiences and perspective on this issue involve no more than the common colds I occasionally get. Some are worse than others, but I am well away that people, me included, tend to take colds for granted. We assume that colds are things that generally come unexpectedly, last briefly and then go away. Most people fail to realize that colds kill and most people today cannot fathom the seriousness of the global influenza epidemic of 1918. It is said that so many American men being sent to war in Europe died from influenza that the virus actually posed as great or greater threat of death than the war. My personal experiences with colds make it difficult to fathom this situation, but it also emphasizes the point that viruses kill and that even apparently simple and common viruses are of greater concern than we realize. Further research needed If further research were pursued, where should we place most of our research emphasis? Certainly, much research should be devoted to finding ways and means to cope with the effects of the viruses most likely to be used in biological warfare. Providing medical assistance after a biological attach may be useless since viruses can exert their lethal effect so quickly that many would die long before any effective treatment could be delivered. Perhaps a research focus on preventing the spread of such weapons would be of greater value although certainly treatment should not be ignored. What treatment would there be, or could there be for newly developed biological weapons? While we cannot develop treatment for deadly viruses not yet developed, perhaps we can pursue research that would head off the development of such viruses. I feel that this is impossible because you cannot head off what you cannot even vaguely predict or foresee. Even as I consider this issue, it seems the possibilities of pursuing research that would provide medical cures for biological germs not yet developed is rather preposterous. In my view, research is not the answer to any of the problems except possibly treating the victims of the potential biological weapons we already have and the germs we already know exist, but what about protecting people from newly developed germs? Ultimately, the real solution appears to be finding a way to stop the development and use of such weapons. Certainly, that might be much easier said than done, but it might mean that the most effective â€Å"medical† research is â€Å"sociological† in nature. I don’t like to view anything as being hopeless, but in this case, it seems to me that the greatest hope lays not so much in any type of research, but in finding ways for human beings to get along better. If further research were pursued, where should we place most of our research emphasis? Certainly, much research should be devoted to finding ways and means to cope with the effects of the viruses most likely to be used in biological warfare. Providing medical assistance after a biological attack may be useless since viruses become resistant to any attack. In a sense, they are perfect fighting machines. This topic is of sociological concern because it indicates how important it is to find ways to address and deal with the social situations and problems we encounter as individuals and as countries. For example, not mentioned in the book is that naive individuals might use viruses to vent grudges against other individuals. Personally, I am just as happy that this idea is not presented in the book because I would not want to give anyone foolish and dangerous ideas that would go far beyond affecting the intended victim, and perhaps that is a central message the book tries to convey as well. Germ warfare is not a strategy that assures national security but a dangerous idea that serves no valid purpose and assures danger, mayhem and widespread death. Book’s Relationship to Sociology its Value in Class Lectures. This topic has value in the class, but in my view, its value lies only in bringing the issue to our attention and allowing us to address the research and development of such weapons in America and perhaps Russia, China and the European countries. There is little we can do about terrorists or rogue countries and certainly, showing too much concern for the creation of such weapons only increases the likelihood that terrorists might be foolish enough to use them. So, the question as to the value of this topic in class is questionable. Certainly, we need to be aware of the dangers of germs and take measures to protect against them and to prevent their spread, but that is mainly a health issue and it remains a health issue whether or not viewed from the perspective of sociology or medicine. Personally, I don’t like calling undue attention to things we cannot control because it alarms people in a manner that leads to a feeling of helplessness. Summary and conclusion In conclusion, this book vividly presents the dangers and concerns that surround germ warfare. While the book focuses on the biological weapons program in the US it points out that many countries are playing with this deadly idea and that developing countries view it as a poor man’s nuclear bomb. Even so, from the author’s perspective at least, biological weapons are much worse than nuclear weapons. In my view, perhaps that is not true. While the methods (nuclear vs. biological) are different, in the final analysis, both cause great illness and (different types of) global pollution that will affect the world for decades, centuries, possibly millennia. In my personal view, I believe that surviving a biological war is more likely than surviving a nuclear war, but I find the idea of choosing between one or the other ludicrous. I feel that more people might die quickly and painfully with biological weapons than with nuclear weapons, but ultimately, I feel that the global pollution with nuclear weapons would be worse. It is a question of seeing a glass as half empty or half full. The idea that there is a difference or distinction is more or less an illusion. In the end, the only viable alternative is to completely avoid both. Choosing between the value judgment as to which is worse is a decision I would rather never take and it is also one that I wish no one else in the world had the opportunity to make. Yes, perhaps that is a naive view, but in the end, isn’t that what you would probably prefer as well. Reference Miller, Judith, Stephen Engelberg and William Broad. (2002). Germs: Biological Weapons and America’s Secret War. Simon and Schuster, New York, NY.